THESIS WRITING FROM START TO FINISH

Thesis writing is an essential requirement for award of university degrees in several universities. However, some universities do not require them either for undergraduate or postgraduate students. For universities that consider thesis writing as a critical component of academic work, thesis writing can be a nightmare for many students. This emanates from their lack of knowledge on how to prepare the thesis report, lack of practice as a result of loss of interest or late start of the whole research process. But the importance of thesis writing cannot be over emphasized because (1) it is a requirement for award of academic certificate in some fields of learning and in some universities; (2) it is required as part of criteria for admission into some programs of study at higher levels of learning; and (3) it may be required as yardstick for promotion or employment in certain jobs and organizations.

This article is intended to provide adequate information for all those who need to write academic research (thesis) for all kinds of reasons from start to finish. Different sections of thesis writing have been discussed in the parts that follow to help eradicate the ghost that hovers around thesis writing.

To begin with, why do we need to incorporate thesis writing in general as part of academic discourse? Below are some of the reasons:

(1)   one will be able to distinguish between scientific information and public opinion;

(2)   the researcher will enhance his ability to think critically and do independent study;

(3)   to improve one’s reading and writing skills;

(4)   it is a key requirement for many post-graduate studies in any field particularly research-based areas and

(5)   it is a key component for graduation in certain academic programs.

In essence, there are many benefits, but these are few reasons that necessitate academic research. These imply that whether one is studying medicine, business, economics or archaeology, research skill is an added advantage! Writing a good thesis/research requires creativity; open mind, curiosity, patience, persistence (tenacity and pertinacity), positive attitude, discipline and focus.

First and foremost, selecting the right topic is key essential to success in the thesis writing process. The topic could be affirmative title, informative title, concise title, discursive title or question title. The following can influence your choice of topic:

(i)             your background

(ii)            your supervisor’s interests

(iii)          identifiable gaps in literature

(iv)          Sources of data

(v)            Sponsor of search research

(vi)          trends and news in the society, etc

In whichever way, you need to read widely and seek advice from your superiors, peers and subordinates as the case may be. Though a demanding process, never give up until you win. We have different types and styles of thesis writing, but broadly, there are five (5) main components. These are: introduction, literature review, methodology, data analysis, presentation of results and discussion, conclusion and recommendation, and references. Depending on the requirements by your school or source of research requirement, you may divide these sections into five or more chapters.  The major sections are briefly discussed in subsequent paragraphs.  

Before you begin the thesis, first, make a schedule: If the supervisor has not already created intermediary deadlines for completing assignments on the research work, draft a schedule and take special notice of deadlines on your personal calendar. Second, choose specific dates of important steps along the way but focus on setting realistic goals, and stick to them! It is important to note that in all sections of your thesis, (1) stay focused on the research problem you are investigating; (2) use paragraphs to separate each important point; (3) present your points in a logical order; (4) use present tense to report well accepted facts; (5) use past tense to describe specific results from your study and (6) avoid the use of superfluous non-textual elements like images, figures, charts and tables, but include only necessary non-textual elements for presenting or enhancing an understanding of the results.

The sections that follow will delve into each of the main contents of the thesis.

The INTRODUCTION

The introduction leads the reader from a general subject area to the particular topic of inquiry. It establishes the scope, context, and significance of the research that is being conducted by summarizing current understanding and background information about the topic. The purpose of the study is stated in the form of the research problem supported by a hypothesis or a set of questions. Also, the methodological approach used should be explained briefly to examine the research problem, whiles highlighting the potential outcomes your study can reveal, and outlining the remaining structure and organization of the paper. The introduction must therefore answer the following questions:

(1)   What topic was I studying?

(2)   Why was this topic important to investigate?

(3)   What did we know about this topic before I did this study?

(4)   How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding?

The LITERATURE REVIEW

A literature review conduct surveys of books, scholarly articles, non-commercial websites, and any other sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being investigated. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have explored while researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within a larger field of study.

Literature Review is also the documentation of a comprehensive review of the published and unpublished works from secondary sources of data in the areas of specific interest to the researcher. It is an extensive survey of all available past studies relevant to the field of investigation.  The main aim is to find out problems that are already investigated and those that need further investigation. It gives us knowledge about what others have found out in the related field of study and how they have done so.

The literature review should entail the following:

(i)             Gives a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations,

(ii)            traces the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates.

(iii)          depending on the situation, evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant research, or

(iv)            usually in the conclusion of a literature review, identify where gaps exist in how a problem has been researched to date.

There are different types of literature review, namely, systematic reviews, theoretical reviews, empirical reviews, argumentative review, integrative reviews, historical reviews, etc. You must choose the type of review that meets the requirements of your school or research committee.

The METHODOLOGY

The methodology section describes actions to be taken to investigate a research problem and the rationale for the application of specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information applied to understanding the problem, thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate the overall validity and reliability of a study. The methodology section of a research paper answers two main questions: How was the data collected or generated? And, how was it analyzed? The writing should be direct and precise and always written in the past tense. The following should be considered in the this section: (1) research design and approach; (2) population; (3) sample and sampling technique; (4) sources of data; (5) data collection instruments; (6) data collection procedure; (7) data analysis and (8) ethical consideration

The DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

The results section is where you report the findings of your study based on the methodology [or methodologies] you applied to gather the information. The results section should state the findings of the research arranged in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation. A section describing results is particularly necessary if your paper includes data generated from your own research.

The DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

The purpose of the discussion is to interpret and describe the significance of your findings in light of what was already known about the research problem being investigated, and to explain any new understanding or insights about the problem after you have taken the findings into consideration. The discussion will always connect with the introduction by way of the research questions or hypotheses you posed and the literature you reviewed, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange the introduction. The discussion should always explain how your study has moved the reader's understanding of the research problem forward from where you left them at the end of the introduction. Below are some general rules to adopt when composing your discussion of the results:

(i)             Do not be verbose or repetitive.

(ii)            Be concise and make your points clearly.

(iii)          Avoid using jargons.

(iv)          Follow a logical stream of thought; in general, interpret and discuss the significance of your findings in the same sequence you described them in your results section.

(v)            Use the present verb tense, especially for established facts; however, refer to specific works or prior studies in the past tense.

(vi)          If needed, use subheadings to help organize your discussion or to categorize your interpretations into themes.

When writing the results section, below are problems to avoid:

1. You should compare or contrast specific results to those found in other studies [e.g., "Similar to Ama [1990], one of the findings of this study is the strong correlation between motivation and academic achievement...."].
2. Reporting background information or attempting to explain your findings. This should have been done in your introduction section, but don't panic! Often the results of a study point to the need for additional background information or to explain the topic further, so don't think you did something wrong. Revise your introduction as needed.
3. Ignoring negative results. If some of your results fail to support your hypothesis, do not ignore them. Document them, and state in your discussion section why you believe a negative result emerged from your study. Note that negative results, and how you handle them offer you the opportunity to write a more engaging discussion section, therefore, don't be afraid to highlight them.
4. Including raw data or intermediate calculations. Ask your supervisor if you need to include any raw data generated by your study, such as transcripts from interviews or data files. If raw data is to be included, place it in an appendix or set of appendices that are referred to in the text.
5. Be as factual and concise as possible in reporting your findings. Do not use phrases that are vague or non-specific, such as, "appeared to be greater or lesser than..." or "demonstrates promising trends that...."
6. Presenting the same data or repeating the same information more than once. If it is important to highlight a particular finding, you will have an opportunity to emphasize its significance in the discussion section.
7. Confusing figures with tables. Be sure to properly label any non-textual elements in your paper. Don't call a chart an illustration or refer to a figure as table. If you are not sure, be sure to clarify before titling.

The CONCLUSION

The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why your research should matter to them after they have finished reading the paper. A conclusion is not merely a summary of the main topics covered or a re-statement of your research problem, but a synthesis of key points and, if applicable, where you recommend new areas for future research. For most essays, a single well-developed paragraph is sufficient for a conclusion, although in some cases, two or three paragraph conclusion may be required. You should do the following:

(i)             Present the last word on the issues you raised in your paper. Just as the introduction gives a first impression to your reader, the conclusion offers a chance to leave a lasting impression. This should be undertaken, for example, by highlighting key findings in your analysis or result section or by noting important or unexpected implications applied to practice.

(ii)            Summarize your thoughts and convey the larger significance of your study. The conclusion is an opportunity to succinctly answer [or in some cases, to re-emphasize] the "So What?" question by placing the study within the context of how your research advances past research about the topic.

(iii)          Identify how a gap in the literature has been addressed. The conclusion can be where you describe how a previously identified gap in the literature [described in your literature review section] has been filled by your research.

(iv)          Demonstrate the importance of your ideas. Don't be shy about this. The conclusion offers you the opportunity to elaborate on the impact and significance of your findings.

(v)            Introduce possible new or expanded ways of thinking about the research problem. This does not refer to introducing new information [which should be avoided], but to offer new insight and creative approaches for framing or contextualizing the research problem based on the results of your study.

In general, verb tense should be in the following format, although variations can occur within the text depending on the narrative style of your paper. Note that references to prior research mentioned anywhere in your paper should always be stated in the past tense.

1. Abstract--past tense [a summary description of what I did].
2. Introduction--present tense [I am describing the study to you now].
3. Literature Review--past tense [the studies you are reviewing have already been written].
4. Methodology--past tense [the way that you gathered and synthesized data has already happened, otherwise, how could you write your paper?].
5. Results--past tense [the findings have already been discovered].
6. Discussion--present tense [I am talking to you now about how I interpreted the findings].
7. Conclusion--present tense [I am summarizing the study for you now].

An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph (depending on the requirements and type of abstract) the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence that includes 1) the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated; 2) the basic design of the study; 3) major findings or trends found as a result of your analysis; and 4) a brief summary of your interpretations and conclusion.

These are the main types of abstracts with reference from the Carnegie learning center and as described by Dr. Robert V. Labaree in their Library:

(i)             Critical Abstract: A critical abstract provides, in addition to describing main findings and information, a judgement or comment about the study’s validity, reliability, or completeness. The researcher evaluates the paper and often compares it with other works on the same subject. Critical abstracts are generally 400-500 words in length due to the additional interpretive commentary. These types of abstracts are used infrequently.

(ii)            Descriptive Abstract: A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarized. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less.

(iii)          Informative Abstract: Majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope], but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length

(iv)          Highlight Abstract: A highlight abstract is specifically written to attract the reader’s attention to the study. No pretense is made of there being either a balanced or complete picture of the paper and, in fact, incomplete and leading remarks may be used to spark the reader’s interest. A highlight abstract therefore cannot stand independent of its associated article. It is not a true abstract and, therefore, rarely used in academic writing.

In sum, the abstract should not contain lengthy background information, references to other literature [e.g. "current research shows that..." or "studies have indicated..."] unless required. Using ellipticals [i.e., ending with "..."] or incomplete sentences, abbreviations, jargons and/or technical terms that may be confusing to the reader, as well as any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table, or references to them unless required.

The section that follows presents questions that were asked in the seminar and the answers that were provided by our facilitator, Dr. Saviour. Participants asked the following questions:

1. Is it ok to repeat some of the points mentioned in the introduction in the literature review?

Answer: Avoid repeating points discussed earlier, unless those points are required to firm up an assertion. In that case also, try to rephrase it.

2. How many pages are required for the introduction and literature review?

Answer: The number of pages depends on the requirements by the school or respective department. If you are writing a journal article, then it is required that you limit the introduction to one and half pages or simply 2 pages but it depends on the specific journal. In case of thesis writing, it maybe more than three pages.

3. Why should one avoid introducing new information?

Answer: Depending on the stage of your write-up, new information that is not in line with your objective is not acceptable. This is because it diverts the readers’ attention from the main issues within your work. Only include new information that is in line with your research questions, objectives, etc.

4. What are the different narratives structures used in different thesis writing to help design narrative flow?

Answer: Depending on your work, you can use chronological, methodical narrative structures with action research design, case study design, causal design, cross-sectional design, etc.

5. Some literatures suggest that each chapter should carry a brief introduction of what the chapter is all about while others propose general introduction, which one is recommended?

Answer: A brief introduction to each of the chapters is appreciable. Chapter 1 is broadly an introduction part of the work so may not need to write a brief introduction to chapter 1. Notwithstanding, follow the guidelines of your school or department. There may also be need for chapter summary for each chapter depending on the requirements of your school.

6. What is your suggestion regarding the sequential order of writing each of the main components of the thesis?

Answer: Depending on what you are writing on, the sequential order of writing may not be appropriate but generally, the sequential order gives a clearer logical flow of your narrative, but other methods are accepted.

With these insights, thesis writing should no longer be a nightmare. It is our hope that about 60-70% of the level of confusion surrounding thesis writing has been eliminated if only you are serious about research work. You need to understand that although you might not need to do research now, the content shared here should provide a platform for you to excel in the future when academic research becomes an essential part of your progress to the next level. Remember, “No knowledge is a waste, therefore, pay attention to what and how you learn.”

References

Abstracts. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

Abstracts. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Hartley, James and Lucy Betts. "Common Weaknesses in Traditional Abstracts in hte Social Sciences." Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 60 (October 2009): 2010-2018.

Annesley, Thomas M. "Show Your Cards: The Results Section and the Poker Game." Clinical Chemistry 56 (July 2010): 1066-1070.

Annesley, Thomas M. “The Discussion Section: Your Closing Argument.” Clinical Chemistry 56 (November 2010): 1671-1674.

Borko, Harold and Seymour Chatman. "Criteria for Acceptable Abstracts: A Survey of Abstracters' Instructions." American Documentation 14 (April 1963): 149-160.

Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and the OWL. Purdue University.

Cook, Kathleen E. and Elise Murowchick. “Do Literature Review Skills Transfer from One Course to Another?” Psychology Learning and Teaching 13 (March 2014): 3-11.

Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005.

Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper. Fourth edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2014.

Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998.

Introduction (2010). Curriculum Design and Writing Team. Baltimore County Public Schools.

Jesson, Jill. Doing Your Literature Review: Traditional and Systematic Techniques. London: SAGE, 2011.

Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-First Century. Oxford, UK: 2010.

Procter, Margaret. The Abstract. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto.

Writing Report Abstracts. The Writing Lab and the OWL. Purdue University.

Writing Abstracts. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University.

Article by:                      

Ernest Kwame Affum (Dr. EK)

Author, EKs Life Tunes

This article was put together from notes shared by Dr. Saviour Aryetey Nubuor* during an academic seminar on the topic “Thesis from Start to Finish” held on EKs Life Tunes Wechat Platform on January 23, 2020. 

Thanks to all those who participated in the seminar. 

*Dr. Saviour A. Nubuor is a lecturer and Research Co-ordinator at the Department of Organisation and Human Resources Management of the University of Ghana Business School, Ghana.